As a result, X-rays are produced.  Characteristic X-ray radiation: description, action, features

As a result, X-rays are produced. Characteristic X-ray radiation: description, action, features

X-RAY RADIATION

x-ray radiation occupies the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between gamma and ultraviolet radiation and is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 10 -14 to 10 -7 m. X-ray radiation with a wavelength of 5 x 10 -12 to 2.5 x 10 -10 is used in medicine m, that is, 0.05 - 2.5 angstrom, and actually for X-ray diagnostics - 0.1 angstrom. Radiation is a stream of quanta (photons) propagating in a straight line at the speed of light (300,000 km/s). These quanta have no electric charge. The mass of a quantum is an insignificant part of the atomic mass unit.

Quantum energy measured in Joules (J), but in practice they often use an off-system unit "electron volt" (eV) . One electron volt is the energy that one electron acquires when it passes through a potential difference of 1 volt in an electric field. 1 eV \u003d 1.6 10 ~ 19 J. Derivatives are a kiloelectron volt (keV), equal to a thousand eV, and a megaelectron volt (MeV), equal to a million eV.

X-rays are obtained using X-ray tubes, linear accelerators and betatrons. In an X-ray tube, the potential difference between the cathode and the target anode (tens of kilovolts) accelerates the electrons bombarding the anode. X-ray radiation arises when fast electrons decelerate in the electric field of atoms of the anode substance (bremsstrahlung) or when rearranging the inner shells of atoms (characteristic radiation) . Characteristic X-rays has a discrete character and occurs when the electrons of the atoms of the anode substance pass from one energy level to another under the influence of external electrons or radiation quanta. Bremsstrahlung X-ray has a continuous spectrum depending on the anode voltage on the x-ray tube. When decelerating in the anode material, electrons spend most of their energy on heating the anode (99%) and only a small fraction (1%) is converted into X-ray energy. In X-ray diagnostics, bremsstrahlung is most often used.

The basic properties of X-rays are characteristic of all electromagnetic radiation, but there are some features. X-rays have the following properties:

- invisibility - sensitive cells of the human retina do not react to x-rays, since their wavelength is thousands of times smaller than that of visible light;

- rectilinear propagation - rays are refracted, polarized (propagated in a certain plane) and diffracted, like visible light. The refractive index differs very little from unity;



- penetrating power - penetrate without significant absorption through significant layers of a substance that is opaque to visible light. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetrating power of X-rays;

- absorbency - have the ability to be absorbed by the tissues of the body, this is the basis of all x-ray diagnostics. The ability to absorb depends on the specific gravity of the tissues (the more, the greater the absorption); on the thickness of the object; on the hardness of the radiation;

- photographic action - decompose silver halide compounds, including those found in photographic emulsions, which makes it possible to obtain x-rays;

- luminescent effect - cause the luminescence of a number of chemical compounds (phosphors), this is the basis of the X-ray transmission technique. The intensity of the glow depends on the structure of the fluorescent substance, its amount and distance from the source of x-rays. Phosphors are used not only to obtain an image of the objects under study on a fluoroscopic screen, but also in radiography, where they make it possible to increase the radiation exposure to a radiographic film in a cassette due to the use of intensifying screens, the surface layer of which is made of fluorescent substances;

- ionization action - have the ability to cause the decay of neutral atoms into positively and negatively charged particles, dosimetry is based on this. The effect of ionization of any medium is the formation of positive and negative ions in it, as well as free electrons from neutral atoms and molecules of a substance. The ionization of air in the X-ray room during the operation of the X-ray tube leads to an increase in the electrical conductivity of the air, an increase in static electric charges on the objects of the cabinet. In order to eliminate such an undesirable influence of them in X-ray rooms, forced supply and exhaust ventilation is provided;

- biological action - have an impact on biological objects, in most cases this impact is harmful;

- inverse square law - for a point source of X-ray radiation, the intensity decreases in proportion to the square of the distance to the source.

Modern medicine uses many physicians for diagnosis and therapy. Some of them have been used relatively recently, while others have been practiced for more than a dozen or even hundreds of years. Also, a hundred and ten years ago, William Conrad Roentgen discovered the amazing X-rays, which caused a significant resonance in the scientific and medical world. And now doctors all over the planet use them in their practice. The topic of our today's conversation will be X-rays in medicine, we will discuss their application in a little more detail.

X-rays are one of the varieties of electromagnetic radiation. They are characterized by significant penetrating qualities, which depend on the wavelength of radiation, as well as on the density and thickness of the irradiated materials. In addition, X-rays can cause the glow of a number of substances, affect living organisms, ionize atoms, and also catalyze some photochemical reactions.

The use of X-rays in medicine

To date, the properties of x-rays allow them to be widely used in x-ray diagnostics and x-ray therapy.

X-ray diagnostics

X-ray diagnostics is used when carrying out:

X-ray (transmission);
- radiography (picture);
- fluorography;
- X-ray and computed tomography.

Fluoroscopy

To conduct such a study, the patient needs to position himself between the X-ray tube and a special fluorescent screen. A specialist radiologist selects the required hardness of the X-rays, receiving on the screen a picture of the internal organs, as well as the ribs.

Radiography

For this study, the patient is placed on a cassette containing a special film. The X-ray machine is placed directly above the object. As a result, a negative image of the internal organs appears on the film, which contains a number of fine details, more detailed than during a fluoroscopic examination.

Fluorography

This study is carried out during mass medical examinations of the population, including for the detection of tuberculosis. At the same time, a picture from a large screen is projected onto a special film.

Tomography

When conducting tomography, computer beams help to obtain images of organs in several places at once: in specially selected transverse sections of tissue. This series of x-rays is called a tomogram.

Computed tomogram

Such a study allows you to register sections of the human body by using an X-ray scanner. After the data is entered into the computer, getting one picture in cross section.

Each of the listed diagnostic methods is based on the properties of the X-ray beam to illuminate the film, as well as on the fact that human tissues and bone skeleton differ in different permeability to their effects.

X-ray therapy

The ability of X-rays to influence in a special way on tissue is used for the treatment of tumor formations. At the same time, the ionizing qualities of this radiation are especially actively noticeable when exposed to cells that are capable of rapid division. It is these qualities that distinguish the cells of malignant oncological formations.

However, it is worth noting that X-ray therapy can cause a lot of serious side effects. Such an impact aggressively affects the state of the hematopoietic, endocrine and immune systems, the cells of which also divide very quickly. Aggressive influence on them can cause signs of radiation sickness.

The effect of X-ray radiation on humans

During the study of x-rays, doctors found that they can lead to changes in the skin that resemble a sunburn, but are accompanied by deeper damage to the skin. Such ulcers heal for a very long time. Scientists have found that such lesions can be avoided by reducing the time and dose of radiation, as well as using special shielding and remote control methods.

The aggressive influence of X-rays can also manifest itself in the long term: temporary or permanent changes in the composition of the blood, susceptibility to leukemia and early aging.

The effect of x-rays on a person depends on many factors: on which organ is irradiated, and for how long. Irradiation of the hematopoietic organs can lead to blood ailments, and exposure to the genital organs can lead to infertility.

Carrying out systematic irradiation is fraught with the development of genetic changes in the body.

The real harm of x-rays in x-ray diagnostics

During the examination, doctors use the minimum possible amount of x-rays. All radiation doses meet certain acceptable standards and cannot harm a person. X-ray diagnostics poses a significant danger only for the doctors who carry it out. And then modern methods of protection help to reduce the aggression of the rays to a minimum.

The safest methods of radiodiagnosis include radiography of the extremities, as well as dental x-rays. In the next place of this rating is mammography, followed by computed tomography, and after it is radiography.

In order for the use of X-rays in medicine to bring only benefit to a person, it is necessary to conduct research with their help only according to indications.


X-rays are a type of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. It is actively used in various branches of medicine.

X-rays are electromagnetic waves whose photon energy on the scale of electromagnetic waves is between ultraviolet radiation and gamma radiation (from ~10 eV to ~1 MeV), which corresponds to wavelengths from ~10^3 to ~10^−2 angstroms ( from ~10^−7 to ~10^−12 m). That is, it is incomparably harder radiation than visible light, which is on this scale between ultraviolet and infrared (“thermal”) rays.

The boundary between X-rays and gamma radiation is distinguished conditionally: their ranges intersect, gamma rays can have an energy of 1 keV. They differ in origin: gamma rays are emitted during processes occurring in atomic nuclei, while X-rays are emitted during processes involving electrons (both free and those in the electron shells of atoms). At the same time, it is impossible to determine from the photon itself during which process it arose, that is, the division into the X-ray and gamma ranges is largely arbitrary.

The X-ray range is divided into “soft X-ray” and “hard”. The boundary between them lies at the wavelength level of 2 angstroms and 6 keV of energy.

The X-ray generator is a tube in which a vacuum is created. There are electrodes - a cathode, to which a negative charge is applied, and a positively charged anode. The voltage between them is tens to hundreds of kilovolts. The generation of X-ray photons occurs when electrons “break off” from the cathode and crash into the anode surface at high speed. The resulting X-ray radiation is called “bremsstrahlung”, its photons have different wavelengths.

At the same time, photons of the characteristic spectrum are generated. Part of the electrons in the atoms of the anode substance is excited, that is, it goes to higher orbits, and then returns to its normal state, emitting photons of a certain wavelength. Both types of X-rays are produced in a standard generator.

Discovery history

On November 8, 1895, the German scientist Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen discovered that some substances, under the influence of "cathode rays", that is, the flow of electrons generated by a cathode ray tube, begin to glow. He explained this phenomenon by the influence of certain X-rays - so (“X-rays”) this radiation is now called in many languages. Later V.K. Roentgen studied the phenomenon he had discovered. On December 22, 1895, he gave a lecture on this topic at the University of Würzburg.

Later it turned out that X-ray radiation had been observed before, but then the phenomena associated with it were not given much importance. The cathode ray tube was invented a long time ago, but before V.K. X-ray, no one paid much attention to the blackening of photographic plates near it, etc. phenomena. The danger posed by penetrating radiation was also unknown.

Types and their effect on the body

“X-ray” is the mildest type of penetrating radiation. Overexposure to soft x-rays is similar to ultraviolet exposure, but in a more severe form. A burn forms on the skin, but the lesion is deeper, and it heals much more slowly.

Hard X-ray is a full-fledged ionizing radiation that can lead to radiation sickness. X-ray quanta can break the protein molecules that make up the tissues of the human body, as well as the DNA molecules of the genome. But even if an X-ray quantum breaks a water molecule, it doesn't matter: in this case, chemically active free radicals H and OH are formed, which themselves are able to act on proteins and DNA. Radiation sickness proceeds in a more severe form, the more the hematopoietic organs are affected.

X-rays have mutagenic and carcinogenic activity. This means that the probability of spontaneous mutations in cells during irradiation increases, and sometimes healthy cells can degenerate into cancerous ones. Increasing the likelihood of malignant tumors is a standard consequence of any exposure, including x-rays. X-rays are the least dangerous type of penetrating radiation, but they can still be dangerous.

X-ray radiation: application and how it works

X-ray radiation is used in medicine, as well as in other areas of human activity.

Fluoroscopy and computed tomography

The most common application of X-rays is fluoroscopy. "Transillumination" of the human body allows you to get a detailed image of both the bones (they are most clearly visible) and images of the internal organs.

Different transparency of body tissues in x-rays is associated with their chemical composition. Features of the structure of bones is that they contain a lot of calcium and phosphorus. Other tissues are composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The phosphorus atom exceeds the weight of the oxygen atom almost twice, and the calcium atom - 2.5 times (carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen are even lighter than oxygen). In this regard, the absorption of X-ray photons in the bones is much higher.

In addition to two-dimensional “pictures”, radiography makes it possible to create a three-dimensional image of an organ: this type of radiography is called computed tomography. For these purposes, soft x-rays are used. The amount of exposure received in a single image is small: it is approximately equal to the exposure received during a 2-hour flight in an airplane at an altitude of 10 km.

X-ray flaw detection allows you to detect small internal defects in products. Hard x-rays are used for it, since many materials (metal, for example) are poorly “translucent” due to the high atomic mass of their constituent substance.

X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence analysis

X-rays have properties that allow them to examine individual atoms in detail. X-ray diffraction analysis is actively used in chemistry (including biochemistry) and crystallography. The principle of its operation is the diffraction scattering of X-rays by atoms of crystals or complex molecules. Using X-ray diffraction analysis, the structure of the DNA molecule was determined.

X-ray fluorescence analysis allows you to quickly determine chemical composition substances.

There are many forms of radiotherapy, but they all involve the use of ionizing radiation. Radiotherapy is divided into 2 types: corpuscular and wave. Corpuscular uses flows of alpha particles (nuclei of helium atoms), beta particles (electrons), neutrons, protons, heavy ions. Wave uses rays of the electromagnetic spectrum - x-rays and gamma.

Radiotherapy methods are used primarily for the treatment of oncological diseases. The fact is that radiation primarily affects actively dividing cells, which is why the hematopoietic organs suffer this way (their cells are constantly dividing, producing more and more new red blood cells). Cancer cells are also constantly dividing and are more vulnerable to radiation than healthy tissue.

A level of radiation is used that suppresses the activity of cancer cells, while moderately affecting healthy ones. Under the influence of radiation, it is not the destruction of cells as such, but the damage to their genome - DNA molecules. A cell with a destroyed genome may exist for some time, but can no longer divide, that is, tumor growth stops.

Radiation therapy is the mildest form of radiotherapy. Wave radiation is softer than corpuscular radiation, and X-rays are softer than gamma radiation.

During pregnancy

It is dangerous to use ionizing radiation during pregnancy. X-rays are mutagenic and can cause abnormalities in the fetus. X-ray therapy is incompatible with pregnancy: it can only be used if it has already been decided to have an abortion. Restrictions on fluoroscopy are softer, but in the first months it is also strictly prohibited.

In case of emergency, X-ray examination is replaced by magnetic resonance imaging. But in the first trimester they try to avoid it too (this method has appeared recently, and with absolute certainty to speak about the absence of harmful consequences).

An unequivocal danger arises when exposed to a total dose of at least 1 mSv (in old units - 100 mR). With a simple x-ray (for example, when undergoing fluorography), the patient receives about 50 times less. In order to receive such a dose at a time, you need to undergo a detailed computed tomography.

That is, the mere fact of a 1-2-fold “X-ray” at an early stage of pregnancy does not threaten with serious consequences (but it’s better not to risk it).

Treatment with it

X-rays are used primarily in the fight against malignant tumors. This method is good because it is highly effective: it kills the tumor. It is bad because healthy tissues are not much better, there are numerous side effects. The organs of hematopoiesis are at particular risk.

In practice, various methods are used to reduce the effect of x-rays on healthy tissues. The beams are directed at an angle in such a way that a tumor appears in the zone of their intersection (due to this, the main absorption of energy occurs just there). Sometimes the procedure is performed in motion: the patient's body rotates relative to the radiation source around an axis passing through the tumor. At the same time, healthy tissues are in the irradiation zone only sometimes, and the sick - all the time.

X-rays are used in the treatment of certain arthrosis and similar diseases, as well as skin diseases. In this case, the pain syndrome is reduced by 50-90%. Since the radiation is used in this case is softer, side effects similar to those that occur in the treatment of tumors are not observed.

X-ray radiation (synonymous with X-rays) is with a wide range of wavelengths (from 8·10 -6 to 10 -12 cm). X-ray radiation occurs when charged particles, most often electrons, decelerate in the electric field of the atoms of a substance. The resulting quanta have different energies and form a continuous spectrum. The maximum photon energy in such a spectrum is equal to the energy of incident electrons. In (see) the maximum energy of X-ray quanta, expressed in kiloelectron-volts, is numerically equal to the magnitude of the voltage applied to the tube, expressed in kilovolts. When passing through a substance, X-rays interact with the electrons of its atoms. For X-ray quanta with energies up to 100 keV, the most characteristic type of interaction is the photoelectric effect. As a result of such an interaction, the quantum energy is completely spent on pulling out an electron from the atomic shell and imparting kinetic energy to it. With an increase in the energy of an X-ray quantum, the probability of the photoelectric effect decreases and the process of scattering of quanta on free electrons becomes predominant - the so-called Compton effect. As a result of such an interaction, a secondary electron is also formed and, in addition, a quantum with an energy less than the energy of the primary quantum flies out. If the energy of an X-ray quantum exceeds one megaelectron-volt, a so-called pairing effect can occur, in which an electron and a positron are formed (see). Consequently, when passing through a substance, the energy of X-ray radiation decreases, i.e., its intensity decreases. Since low-energy quanta are more likely to be absorbed in this case, X-ray radiation is enriched with higher-energy quanta. This property of X-ray radiation is used to increase the average energy of quanta, i.e., to increase its rigidity. An increase in the hardness of X-ray radiation is achieved using special filters (see). X-ray radiation is used for X-ray diagnostics (see) and (see). See also Ionizing radiation.

X-ray radiation (synonym: x-rays, x-rays) - quantum electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 250 to 0.025 A (or energy quanta from 5 10 -2 to 5 10 2 keV). In 1895, it was discovered by V.K. Roentgen. The spectral region of electromagnetic radiation adjacent to x-rays, whose energy quanta exceed 500 keV, is called gamma radiation (see); radiation, whose energy quanta are below 0.05 keV, is ultraviolet radiation (see).

Thus, representing a relatively small part of the vast spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, which includes both radio waves and visible light, X-ray radiation, like any electromagnetic radiation, propagates at the speed of light (about 300 thousand km / s in a vacuum) and is characterized by a wavelength λ ( the distance over which the radiation propagates in one period of oscillation). X-ray radiation also has a number of other wave properties (refraction, interference, diffraction), but it is much more difficult to observe them than for longer-wavelength radiation: visible light, radio waves.

X-ray spectra: a1 - continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum at 310 kV; a - continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum at 250 kV, a1 - spectrum filtered by 1 mm Cu, a2 - spectrum filtered by 2 mm Cu, b - K-series of the tungsten line.

To generate x-rays, x-ray tubes are used (see), in which radiation occurs when fast electrons interact with atoms of the anode substance. There are two types of x-rays: bremsstrahlung and characteristic. Bremsstrahlung X-ray radiation, which has a continuous spectrum, is similar to ordinary white light. The distribution of intensity depending on the wavelength (Fig.) is represented by a curve with a maximum; in the direction of long waves, the curve falls gently, and in the direction of short waves, it steeply and breaks off at a certain wavelength (λ0), called the short-wavelength boundary of the continuous spectrum. The value of λ0 is inversely proportional to the voltage on the tube. Bremsstrahlung arises from the interaction of fast electrons with atomic nuclei. The bremsstrahlung intensity is directly proportional to the strength of the anode current, the square of the tube voltage, and the atomic number (Z) of the anode material.

If the energy of electrons accelerated in the X-ray tube exceeds the critical value for the anode substance (this energy is determined by the tube voltage Vcr, which is critical for this substance), then characteristic radiation occurs. The characteristic spectrum is line, its spectral lines form a series, denoted by the letters K, L, M, N.

The K series is the shortest wavelength, the L series is longer wavelength, the M and N series are observed only in heavy elements (Vcr of tungsten for the K-series is 69.3 kv, for the L-series - 12.1 kv). Characteristic radiation arises as follows. Fast electrons knock atomic electrons out of the inner shells. The atom is excited and then returns to the ground state. In this case, electrons from the outer, less bound shells fill the spaces vacated in the inner shells, and photons of characteristic radiation with an energy equal to the difference between the energies of the atom in the excited and ground states are emitted. This difference (and hence the energy of the photon) has a certain value, characteristic of each element. This phenomenon underlies the X-ray spectral analysis of elements. The figure shows the line spectrum of tungsten against the background of a continuous spectrum of bremsstrahlung.

The energy of electrons accelerated in the X-ray tube is converted almost entirely into thermal energy (the anode becomes very hot in this case), only an insignificant part (about 1% at a voltage close to 100 kV) is converted into bremsstrahlung energy.

The use of x-rays in medicine is based on the laws of absorption of x-rays by matter. The absorption of x-rays is completely independent of the optical properties of the absorber material. The colorless and transparent lead glass used to protect personnel in x-ray rooms absorbs x-rays almost completely. In contrast, a sheet of paper that is not transparent to light does not attenuate X-rays.

The intensity of a homogeneous (i.e., a certain wavelength) beam of x-ray radiation, when passing through an absorber layer, decreases according to the exponential law (e-x), where e is the base of natural logarithms (2.718), and the exponent x is equal to the product mass attenuation coefficient (μ / p) cm 2 /g per absorber thickness in g / cm 2 (here p is the density of the substance in g / cm 3). X-rays are attenuated by both scattering and absorption. Accordingly, the mass attenuation coefficient is the sum of the mass absorption and scattering coefficients. The mass absorption coefficient increases sharply with increasing atomic number (Z) of the absorber (proportional to Z3 or Z5) and with increasing wavelength (proportional to λ3). This dependence on the wavelength is observed within the absorption bands, at the boundaries of which the coefficient exhibits jumps.

The mass scattering coefficient increases with increasing atomic number of the substance. For λ≥0,3Å the scattering coefficient does not depend on the wavelength, for λ<0,ЗÅ он уменьшается с уменьшением λ.

The decrease in the absorption and scattering coefficients with decreasing wavelength causes an increase in the penetrating power of X-rays. The mass absorption coefficient for bones [absorption is mainly due to Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 ] is almost 70 times greater than for soft tissues, where absorption is mainly due to water. This explains why the shadow of the bones stands out so sharply on the radiographs against the background of soft tissues.

The propagation of an inhomogeneous X-ray beam through any medium, along with a decrease in intensity, is accompanied by a change in the spectral composition, a change in the quality of the radiation: the long-wave part of the spectrum is absorbed to a greater extent than the short-wave part, the radiation becomes more uniform. Filtering out the long-wavelength part of the spectrum makes it possible to improve the ratio between deep and surface doses during X-ray therapy of foci located deep in the human body (see X-ray filters). To characterize the quality of an inhomogeneous X-ray beam, the concept of "half attenuation layer (L)" is used - a layer of a substance that attenuates the radiation by half. The thickness of this layer depends on the voltage on the tube, the thickness and material of the filter. Cellophane (up to an energy of 12 keV), aluminum (20–100 keV), copper (60–300 keV), lead, and copper (>300 keV) are used to measure half attenuation layers. For X-rays generated at voltages of 80-120 kV, 1 mm of copper is equivalent in filtering capacity to 26 mm of aluminum, 1 mm of lead is equivalent to 50.9 mm of aluminum.

Absorption and scattering of X-rays is due to its corpuscular properties; X-rays interact with atoms as a stream of corpuscles (particles) - photons, each of which has a certain energy (inversely proportional to the wavelength of X-rays). The energy range of X-ray photons is 0.05-500 keV.

The absorption of X-ray radiation is due to the photoelectric effect: the absorption of a photon by the electron shell is accompanied by the ejection of an electron. The atom is excited and, returning to the ground state, emits characteristic radiation. The emitted photoelectron carries away all the energy of the photon (minus the binding energy of the electron in the atom).

Scattering of X-ray radiation is due to the electrons of the scattering medium. There are classical scattering (the wavelength of the radiation does not change, but the direction of propagation changes) and scattering with a change in wavelength - the Compton effect (the wavelength of the scattered radiation is greater than the incident one). In the latter case, the photon behaves like a moving ball, and the scattering of photons occurs, according to the figurative expression of Comnton, like a game of billiards with photons and electrons: colliding with an electron, the photon transfers part of its energy to it and scatters, having already less energy (respectively, the wavelength of the scattered radiation increases), the electron flies out of the atom with a recoil energy (these electrons are called Compton electrons, or recoil electrons). The absorption of X-ray energy occurs during the formation of secondary electrons (Compton and photoelectrons) and the transfer of energy to them. The energy of X-rays transferred to a unit mass of a substance determines the absorbed dose of X-rays. The unit of this dose 1 rad corresponds to 100 erg/g. Due to the absorbed energy in the substance of the absorber, a number of secondary processes occur that are important for X-ray dosimetry, since it is on them that X-ray measurement methods are based. (see Dosimetry).

All gases and many liquids, semiconductors and dielectrics, under the action of X-rays, increase electrical conductivity. Conductivity is found by the best insulating materials: paraffin, mica, rubber, amber. The change in conductivity is due to the ionization of the medium, i.e., the separation of neutral molecules into positive and negative ions (ionization is produced by secondary electrons). Ionization in air is used to determine the exposure dose of X-ray radiation (dose in air), which is measured in roentgens (see Ionizing Radiation Doses). At a dose of 1 r, the absorbed dose in air is 0.88 rad.

Under the action of X-rays, as a result of the excitation of the molecules of a substance (and during the recombination of ions), in many cases a visible glow of the substance is excited. At high intensities of X-ray radiation, a visible glow of air, paper, paraffin, etc. is observed (metals are an exception). The highest yield of visible light is given by such crystalline phosphors as Zn·CdS·Ag-phosphorus and others used for screens in fluoroscopy.

Under the action of X-rays, various chemical processes can also take place in a substance: the decomposition of silver halides (a photographic effect used in X-rays), the decomposition of water and aqueous solutions of hydrogen peroxide, a change in the properties of celluloid (clouding and release of camphor), paraffin (clouding and bleaching) .

As a result of complete conversion, all the X-ray energy absorbed by the chemically inert substance is converted into heat. The measurement of very small amounts of heat requires highly sensitive methods, but is the main method for absolute measurements of X-rays.

Secondary biological effects from exposure to x-rays are the basis of medical radiotherapy (see). X-rays, the quanta of which are 6-16 keV (effective wavelengths from 2 to 5 Å), are almost completely absorbed by the skin integument of the tissue of the human body; they are called boundary rays, or sometimes Bucca rays (see Bucca rays). For deep X-ray therapy, hard filtered radiation with effective energy quanta from 100 to 300 keV is used.

The biological effect of x-ray radiation should be taken into account not only in x-ray therapy, but also in x-ray diagnostics, as well as in all other cases of contact with x-rays that require the use of radiation protection (see).

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

MOSCOW STATE INSTITUTE OF STEEL AND ALLOYS

(UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY)

NOVOTROITSKY BRANCH

Department of OEND

COURSE WORK

Discipline: Physics

Topic: X-RAY

Student: Nedorezova N.A.

Group: EiU-2004-25, No. З.К.: 04Н036

Checked by: Ozhegova S.M.

Introduction

Chapter 1

1.1 Biography of Roentgen Wilhelm Conrad

1.2 Discovery of X-rays

Chapter 2

2.1 X-ray sources

2.2 Properties of X-rays

2.3 Registration of X-rays

2.4 Use of X-rays

Chapter 3

3.1 Analysis of crystal structure imperfections

3.2 Spectrum analysis

Conclusion

List of sources used

Applications

Introduction

A rare person has not gone through an x-ray room. Pictures taken in x-rays are familiar to everyone. In 1995, this discovery was 100 years old. It is hard to imagine what great interest it aroused a century ago. In the hands of a man turned out to be an apparatus with which it was possible to see the invisible.

This invisible radiation, capable of penetrating, albeit to varying degrees, into all substances, which is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of about 10 -8 cm, was called X-ray radiation, in honor of Wilhelm Roentgen, who discovered it.

Like visible light, X-rays cause blackening of photographic film. This property is of great importance for medicine, industry and scientific research. Passing through the object under study and then falling on the film, X-ray radiation depicts its internal structure on it. Since the penetrating power of X-ray radiation is different for different materials, parts of the object that are less transparent to it give brighter areas in the photograph than those through which the radiation penetrates well. Thus, bone tissues are less transparent to x-rays than the tissues that make up the skin and internal organs. Therefore, on the radiograph, the bones will be indicated as lighter areas and the fracture site, which is less transparent for radiation, can be quite easily detected. X-ray imaging is also used in dentistry to detect caries and abscesses in the roots of teeth, as well as in industry to detect cracks in castings, plastics and rubbers, in chemistry to analyze compounds, and in physics to study the structure of crystals.

Roentgen's discovery was followed by experiments by other researchers who discovered many new properties and possibilities for using this radiation. A major contribution was made by M. Laue, W. Friedrich, and P. Knipping, who in 1912 demonstrated the diffraction of X-rays as they pass through a crystal; W. Coolidge, who in 1913 invented a high-vacuum x-ray tube with a heated cathode; G. Moseley, who established in 1913 the relationship between the wavelength of radiation and the atomic number of an element; G. and L. Braggi, who received the Nobel Prize in 1915 for developing the fundamentals of X-ray diffraction analysis.

The purpose of this course work is to study the phenomenon of x-ray radiation, the history of discovery, properties and identify the scope of its application.

Chapter 1

1.1 Biography of Roentgen Wilhelm Conrad

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was born on March 17, 1845 in the border region of Germany with Holland, in the city of Lenepe. He received his technical education in Zurich at the same Higher Technical School (Polytechnic) where Einstein later studied. Passion for physics forced him after leaving school in 1866 to continue physical education.

In 1868 he defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, he worked as an assistant at the Department of Physics, first in Zurich, then in Giessen, and then in Strasbourg (1874-1879) with Kundt. Here Roentgen went through a good experimental school and became a first-class experimenter. Roentgen performed part of the important research with his student, one of the founders of Soviet physics, A.F. Ioffe.

Scientific research relates to electromagnetism, crystal physics, optics, molecular physics.

In 1895, he discovered radiation with a wavelength shorter than the wavelength of ultraviolet rays (X-rays), later called x-rays, and investigated their properties: the ability to reflect, absorb, ionize air, etc. He proposed the correct design of the tube for obtaining X-rays - an inclined platinum anticathode and a concave cathode: he was the first to take photographs using X-rays. He discovered in 1885 the magnetic field of a dielectric moving in an electric field (the so-called "roentgen current"). His experience clearly showed that the magnetic field is created by moving charges, and was important for the creation of X. Lorentz's electronic theory. A significant number of Roentgen's works are devoted to the study properties of liquids, gases, crystals, electromagnetic phenomena, discovered the relationship between electrical and optical phenomena in crystals.For the discovery of the rays that bear his name, Roentgen in 1901 was the first among physicists to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

From 1900 until the last days of his life (he died on February 10, 1923) he worked at the University of Munich.

1.2 Discovery of X-rays

End of the 19th century was marked by increased interest in the phenomena of the passage of electricity through gases. Even Faraday seriously studied these phenomena, described various forms of discharge, discovered a dark space in a luminous column of rarefied gas. Faraday dark space separates the bluish, cathode glow from the pinkish, anode glow.

A further increase in the rarefaction of the gas significantly changes the nature of the glow. The mathematician Plücker (1801-1868) discovered in 1859, at sufficiently strong rarefaction, a weakly bluish beam of rays emanating from the cathode, reaching the anode and causing the glass of the tube to glow. Plücker's student Gittorf (1824-1914) in 1869 continued his teacher's research and showed that a distinct shadow appears on the fluorescent surface of the tube if a solid body is placed between the cathode and this surface.

Goldstein (1850-1931), studying the properties of rays, called them cathode rays (1876). Three years later, William Crookes (1832-1919) proved the material nature of cathode rays and called them "radiant matter" - a substance in a special fourth state. His evidence was convincing and clear. Experiments with the "Crookes tube" were demonstrated later in all physical classrooms . The deflection of the cathode beam by a magnetic field in a Crookes tube has become a classic school demonstration.

However, experiments on the electrical deflection of cathode rays were not so convincing. Hertz did not detect such a deviation and came to the conclusion that the cathode ray is an oscillatory process in the ether. Hertz's student F. Lenard, experimenting with cathode rays, showed in 1893 that they pass through a window covered with aluminum foil and cause a glow in the space behind the window. Hertz devoted his last article, published in 1892, to the phenomenon of the passage of cathode rays through thin metal bodies. It began with the words:

"Cathode rays differ from light in a significant way in terms of their ability to penetrate solids." Describing the results of experiments on the passage of cathode rays through gold, silver, platinum, aluminum, etc. leaves, Hertz notes that he did not observe any special differences in the phenomena The rays do not pass through the leaves in a straight line, but are scattered by diffraction.The nature of the cathode rays was still unclear.

It was with such tubes of Crookes, Lenard and others that the Würzburg professor Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen experimented at the end of 1895. Once, after the end of the experiment, he closed the tube with a black cardboard cover, turned off the light, but did not turn off the inductor that fed the tube, he noticed a glow of the screen from barium cyanogen located near the tube. Struck by this circumstance, Roentgen began to experiment with the screen. In his first report "On a new kind of rays", dated December 28, 1895, he wrote about these first experiments: "A piece of paper coated with barium platinum-cyanide, when approaching a tube, closed with a thin black cardboard cover that fits snugly enough to it, with each discharge it flashes with a bright light: it begins to fluoresce. Fluorescence is visible with sufficient darkening and does not depend on whether we bring the paper with the side coated with barium synerogen or not coated with barium synerogen. The fluorescence is noticeable even at a distance of two meters from the tube.”

Careful examination showed Roentgen "that black cardboard, transparent neither to the visible and ultraviolet rays of the sun, nor to the rays of an electric arc, is permeated with some kind of fluorescent agent." Roentgen investigated the penetrating power of this "agent", which he called for brevity "X-rays", for various substances. He found that the rays freely pass through paper, wood, ebonite, thin layers of metal, but are strongly delayed by lead.

He then describes the sensational experience:

“If you hold your hand between the discharge tube and the screen, you can see the dark shadows of the bones in the faint outlines of the shadow of the hand itself.” This was the first X-ray examination of the human body.

These shots made a huge impression; the discovery had not yet been completed, and X-ray diagnostics had already begun its journey. “My laboratory was flooded with doctors bringing in patients who suspected that they had needles in various parts of the body,” wrote the English physicist Schuster.

Already after the first experiments, Roentgen firmly established that X-rays differ from cathode ones, they do not carry a charge and are not deflected by a magnetic field, but they are excited by cathode rays. "X-rays are not identical with cathode rays, but they are excited by them in the glass walls of the discharge tube ”, wrote Roentgen.

He also established that they are excited not only in glass, but also in metals.

Mentioning the Hertz-Lenard hypothesis that cathode rays “are a phenomenon occurring in the ether,” Roentgen points out that “we can say something similar about our rays.” However, he failed to detect the wave properties of the rays, they "behave differently than hitherto known ultraviolet, visible, infrared rays." In their chemical and luminescent actions, they, according to Roentgen, are similar to ultraviolet rays. In the first message, he expressed the assumption left later that they can be longitudinal waves in the ether.

Roentgen's discovery aroused great interest in the scientific world. His experiments were repeated in almost all laboratories in the world. In Moscow they were repeated by P.N. Lebedev. In St. Petersburg, the inventor of radio A.S. Popov experimented with X-rays, demonstrated them at public lectures, receiving various X-rays. In Cambridge D.D. Thomson immediately applied the ionizing effect of X-rays to study the passage of electricity through gases. His research led to the discovery of the electron.

Chapter 2

X-ray radiation - electromagnetic ionizing radiation, occupying the spectral region between gamma and ultraviolet radiation within wavelengths from 10 -4 to 10 3 (from 10 -12 to 10 -5 cm).R. l. with wavelength λ< 2 условно называются жёсткими, с λ >2 - soft.

2.1 X-ray sources

The most common source of X-rays is the X-ray tube. - electrovacuum device serving as an X-ray source. Such radiation occurs when the electrons emitted by the cathode decelerate and hit the anode (anticathode); in this case, the energy of electrons accelerated by a strong electric field in the space between the anode and cathode is partially converted into X-ray energy. X-ray tube radiation is a superposition of X-ray bremsstrahlung on the characteristic radiation of the anode material. X-ray tubes are distinguished: according to the method of obtaining an electron flow - with a thermionic (heated) cathode, field emission (pointed) cathode, a cathode bombarded with positive ions and with a radioactive (β) electron source; according to the method of vacuuming - sealed, collapsible; according to the radiation time - continuous action, pulsed; according to the type of anode cooling - with water, oil, air, radiation cooling; according to the size of the focus (radiation area on the anode) - macrofocus, sharp focus and microfocus; according to its shape - ring, round, ruled; according to the method of focusing electrons on the anode - with electrostatic, magnetic, electromagnetic focusing.

X-ray tubes are used in X-ray structural analysis (Appendix 1), X-ray spectral analysis, flaw detection (Appendix 1), X-ray diagnostics (Appendix 1), radiotherapy , X-ray microscopy and microradiography. Sealed X-ray tubes with a thermionic cathode, a water-cooled anode, and an electrostatic electron focusing system are most widely used in all areas (Appendix 2). The thermionic cathode of X-ray tubes is usually a spiral or straight filament of tungsten wire heated by an electric current. The working section of the anode - a metal mirror surface - is located perpendicular or at some angle to the electron flow. To obtain a continuous spectrum of X-ray radiation of high energies and intensity, anodes from Au, W are used; X-ray tubes with Ti, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Mo, Ag anodes are used in structural analysis.

The main characteristics of X-ray tubes are the maximum permissible accelerating voltage (1-500 kV), electronic current (0.01 mA - 1A), specific power dissipated by the anode (10-10 4 W / mm 2), total power consumption (0.002 W - 60 kW) and focus sizes (1 µm - 10 mm). The efficiency of the x-ray tube is 0.1-3%.

Some radioactive isotopes can also serve as sources of X-rays. : some of them directly emit X-rays, the nuclear radiation of others (electrons or λ-particles) bombard a metal target, which emits X-rays. The X-ray intensity of isotopic sources is several orders of magnitude less than the radiation intensity of an X-ray tube, but the dimensions, weight, and cost of isotope sources are incomparably less than those with an X-ray tube.

Synchrotrons and electron storage rings with energies of several GeV can serve as sources of soft X-rays with λ on the order of tens and hundreds. In intensity, the X-ray radiation of synchrotrons exceeds the radiation of an X-ray tube in the specified region of the spectrum by 2-3 orders of magnitude.

Natural sources of X-rays - the Sun and other space objects.

2.2 Properties of X-rays

Depending on the mechanism of origin of X-rays, their spectra can be continuous (bremsstrahlung) or line (characteristic). A continuous X-ray spectrum is emitted by fast charged particles as a result of their deceleration when interacting with target atoms; this spectrum reaches a significant intensity only when the target is bombarded with electrons. The intensity of bremsstrahlung X-rays is distributed over all frequencies up to the high-frequency boundary 0 , at which the photon energy h 0 (h is Planck's constant ) is equal to the energy eV of the bombarding electrons (e is the electron charge, V is the potential difference of the accelerating field passed by them). This frequency corresponds to the short-wavelength edge of the spectrum 0 = hc/eV (c is the speed of light).

Line radiation occurs after the ionization of an atom with the ejection of an electron from one of its inner shells. Such ionization can be the result of an atom colliding with a fast particle, such as an electron (primary x-rays), or the absorption of a photon by an atom (fluorescent x-rays). The ionized atom finds itself in the initial quantum state at one of the high energy levels and after 10 -16 -10 -15 seconds passes into the final state with a lower energy. In this case, an atom can emit an excess of energy in the form of a photon of a certain frequency. The frequencies of the lines of the spectrum of such radiation are characteristic of the atoms of each element, therefore the line X-ray spectrum is called characteristic. The dependence of the line frequency of this spectrum on the atomic number Z is determined by the Moseley law.

Moseley's law, the law relating the frequency of the spectral lines of the characteristic X-ray emission of a chemical element with its serial number. G. Moseley experimentally installed in 1913. According to Moseley's law, the square root of the frequency  of the spectral line of the characteristic radiation of an element is linear function its serial number Z:

where R is the Rydberg constant , S n - screening constant, n - principal quantum number. On the Moseley diagram (Appendix 3), the dependence on Z is a series of straight lines (K-, L-, M-, etc. series corresponding to the values ​​n = 1, 2, 3,.).

Moseley's law was irrefutable proof of the correct placement of elements in the periodic table of elements DI. Mendeleev and contributed to the elucidation of the physical meaning of Z.

In accordance with Moseley's law, X-ray characteristic spectra do not exhibit the periodic patterns inherent in optical spectra. This indicates that the inner electron shells of atoms of all elements that appear in the characteristic X-ray spectra have a similar structure.

Later experiments revealed some deviations from the linear dependence for the transition groups of elements, associated with a change in the order of filling of the outer electron shells, as well as for heavy atoms, appearing as a result of relativistic effects (conditionally explained by the fact that the speeds of the inner ones are comparable to the speed of light).

Depending on a number of factors - on the number of nucleons in the nucleus (isotonic shift), the state of the outer electron shells (chemical shift), etc. - the position of the spectral lines on the Moseley diagram may change somewhat. The study of these shifts allows one to obtain detailed information about the atom.

Bremsstrahlung X-rays emitted by very thin targets are completely polarized near 0; as 0 decreases, the degree of polarization decreases. Characteristic radiation, as a rule, is not polarized.

When X-rays interact with matter, the photoelectric effect can occur. , accompanying its absorption of X-rays and their scattering, the photoelectric effect is observed when an atom, absorbing an X-ray photon, ejects one of its internal electrons, after which it can either make a radiative transition, emitting a photon of characteristic radiation, or eject a second electron during a nonradiative transition (Auger electron). Under the action of X-rays on non-metallic crystals (for example, on rock salt), ions with an additional positive charge appear in some nodes of the atomic lattice, and excess electrons appear near them. Such disturbances in the structure of crystals, called X-ray excitons , are color centers and disappear only with a significant increase in temperature.

When X-rays pass through a layer of substance with thickness x, their initial intensity I 0 decreases to the value I = I 0 e - μ x where μ is the attenuation coefficient. The attenuation of I occurs due to two processes: the absorption of X-ray photons by matter and the change in their direction upon scattering. In the long-wavelength region of the spectrum, the absorption of X-rays predominates, in the short-wavelength region, their scattering. The degree of absorption increases rapidly with increasing Z and λ. For example, hard X-rays freely penetrate through a layer of air ~ 10 cm; an aluminum plate 3 cm thick attenuates X-rays with λ = 0.027 by half; soft x-rays are significantly absorbed in air and their use and study is possible only in a vacuum or in a weakly absorbing gas (for example, He). When X-rays are absorbed, the atoms of a substance are ionized.

The effect of X-rays on living organisms can be beneficial or harmful, depending on the ionization they cause in the tissues. Since the absorption of X-rays depends on λ, their intensity cannot serve as a measure of the biological effect of X-rays. X-ray measurements are used to measure the effect of X-rays on matter. , the unit of measurement is the roentgen

Scattering of X-rays in the region of large Z and λ occurs mainly without a change in λ and is called coherent scattering, while in the region of small Z and λ, as a rule, it increases (incoherent scattering). There are 2 types of incoherent X-ray scattering - Compton and Raman. In Compton scattering, which has the character of inelastic corpuscular scattering, a recoil electron flies out of the atomic shell due to the energy partially lost by the X-ray photon. In this case, the energy of the photon decreases and its direction changes; the change in λ depends on the scattering angle. During Raman scattering of a high-energy X-ray photon by a light atom, a small part of its energy is spent on ionization of the atom and the direction of the photon's motion changes. The change of such photons does not depend on the scattering angle.

The refractive index n for x-rays differs from 1 by a very small amount δ = 1-n ≈ 10 -6 -10 -5 . The phase velocity of X-rays in a medium is greater than the speed of light in a vacuum. The deviation of X-rays during the transition from one medium to another is very small (a few arc minutes). When X-rays fall from a vacuum onto the surface of a body at a very small angle, their total external reflection occurs.

2.3 Registration of X-rays

The human eye is not sensitive to x-rays. X-ray

rays are recorded using a special x-ray film containing an increased amount of Ag, Br. In the region λ<0,5 чувствительность этих плёнок быстро падает и может быть искусственно повышена плотно прижатым к плёнке флуоресцирующим экраном. В области λ>5, the sensitivity of ordinary positive film is quite high, and its grains are much smaller than the grains of X-ray film, which increases the resolution. At λ of the order of tens and hundreds, X-rays act only on the thinnest surface layer of the photographic emulsion; to increase the sensitivity of the film, it is sensitized with luminescent oils. In X-ray diagnostics and flaw detection, electrophotography is sometimes used to record X-rays. (electroradiography).

X-rays of high intensity can be recorded using an ionization chamber (Appendix 4), X-rays of medium and low intensities at λ< 3 - сцинтилляционным счётчиком with NaI (Tl) crystal (Appendix 5), at 0.5< λ < 5 - счётчиком Гейгера - Мюллера (Appendix 6) and soldered proportional counter (Appendix 7), at 1< λ < 100 - проточным пропорциональным счётчиком, при λ < 120 - полупроводниковым детектором (Appendix 8). In the region of very large λ (from tens to 1000), open-type secondary electron multipliers with various photocathodes at the input can be used to record X-rays.

2.4 Use of X-rays

X-rays are most widely used in medicine for X-ray diagnostics. and radiotherapy . X-ray flaw detection is important for many branches of technology. , for example, to detect internal defects in castings (shells, slag inclusions), cracks in rails, defects in welds.

X-ray structural analysis allows you to establish the spatial arrangement of atoms in the crystal lattice of minerals and compounds, in inorganic and organic molecules. On the basis of numerous atomic structures that have already been deciphered, the inverse problem can also be solved: according to the X-ray pattern polycrystalline substance, for example, alloy steel, alloy, ore, lunar soil, the crystalline composition of this substance can be established, i.e. phase analysis was performed. Numerous applications of R. l. radiography of materials is used to study the properties of solids .

X-ray microscopy allows, for example, to obtain an image of a cell, a microorganism, to see their internal structure. X-ray spectroscopy using X-ray spectra, he studies the distribution of the density of electronic states over energies in various substances, investigates the nature of the chemical bond, and finds the effective charge of ions in solids and molecules. Spectral X-Ray Analysis by the position and intensity of the lines of the characteristic spectrum allows you to determine the qualitative and quantitative composition of the substance and is used for express non-destructive testing of the composition of materials at metallurgical and cement plants, processing plants. When automating these enterprises, X-ray spectrometers and quantometers are used as sensors for the composition of a substance.

X-rays coming from space carry information about the chemical composition of cosmic bodies and about the physical processes taking place in space. X-ray astronomy deals with the study of cosmic x-rays . Powerful X-rays are used in radiation chemistry to stimulate certain reactions, the polymerization of materials, and the cracking of organic substances. X-rays are also used to detect ancient paintings hidden under a layer of late painting, in the food industry to detect foreign objects that accidentally got into food products, in forensic science, archeology, etc.

Chapter 3

One of the main tasks of X-ray diffraction analysis is the determination of the real or phase composition of a material. The X-ray diffraction method is direct and is characterized by high reliability, rapidity and relative cheapness. The method does not require a large number substances, the analysis can be carried out without destroying the part. The areas of application of qualitative phase analysis are very diverse both for scientific research and for control in production. You can check the composition of the raw materials of metallurgical production, synthesis products, processing, the result of phase changes during thermal and chemical-thermal treatment, analyze various coatings, thin films, etc.

Each phase, having its own crystal structure, is characterized by a certain set of discrete values ​​of interplanar distances d/n from the maximum and below, inherent only to this phase. As follows from the Wulf-Bragg equation, each value of the interplanar distance corresponds to a line on the x-ray pattern from a polycrystalline sample at a certain angle θ (at a given value of the wavelength λ). Thus, a certain system of lines (diffraction maxima) will correspond to a certain set of interplanar distances for each phase in the X-ray diffraction pattern. The relative intensity of these lines in the X-ray pattern depends primarily on the structure of the phase. Therefore, by determining the location of the lines on the radiograph (its angle θ) and knowing the wavelength of the radiation at which the radiograph was taken, it is possible to determine the values ​​of the interplanar distances d/n using the Wulf-Bragg formula:

/n = λ/ (2sin θ). (1)

Having determined the set of d/n for the material under study and comparing it with the previously known d/n data for pure substances, their various compounds, it is possible to establish which phase the given material comprises. It should be emphasized that it is the phases that are determined, and not the chemical composition, but the latter can sometimes be deduced if there are additional data on the elemental composition of a particular phase. The task of qualitative phase analysis is greatly facilitated if the chemical composition of the material under study is known, because then it is possible to make preliminary assumptions about the possible phases in this case.

The key to phase analysis is to accurately measure d/n and line intensity. Although this is in principle easier to achieve using a diffractometer, the photomethod for qualitative analysis has some advantages, primarily in terms of sensitivity (the ability to detect the presence of a small amount of phase in the sample), as well as the simplicity of the experimental technique.

The calculation of d/n from the X-ray pattern is carried out using the Wulf-Bragg equation.

As the value of λ in this equation, λ α cf K-series is usually used:

λ α cf = (2λ α1 + λ α2) /3 (2)

Sometimes the K α1 line is used. Determining the diffraction angles θ for all X-ray lines allows you to calculate d / n according to equation (1) and separate the β-lines (if there was no filter for (β-rays).

3.1 Analysis of crystal structure imperfections

All real single-crystal and even more so polycrystalline materials contain certain structural imperfections (point defects, dislocations, various types of interfaces, micro- and macrostresses), which have a very strong effect on all structure-sensitive properties and processes.

Structural imperfections cause distortions of the crystal lattice of different nature and, as a result, different types of changes in the diffraction pattern: a change in interatomic and interplanar distances causes a shift in diffraction maxima, microstresses and dispersity of the substructure lead to a broadening of diffraction maxima, lattice microdistortions - to a change in the intensity of these maxima, the presence dislocations causes anomalous phenomena during the passage of X-rays and, consequently, local contrast inhomogeneities on X-ray topograms, etc.

As a result, X-ray diffraction analysis is one of the most informative methods for studying structural imperfections, their type and concentration, and the nature of their distribution.

The traditional direct method of X-ray diffraction, which is implemented on stationary diffractometers, due to their design features, allows quantitative determination of stresses and strains only on small samples cut from parts or objects.

Therefore, at present, there is a transition from stationary to portable small-sized X-ray diffractometers, which provide an assessment of stresses in the material of parts or objects without destruction at the stages of their manufacture and operation.

Portable X-ray diffractometers of the DRP * 1 series make it possible to control residual and effective stresses in large-sized parts, products and structures without destruction

The program in the Windows environment allows not only to determine the stresses using the "sin 2 ψ" method in real time, but also to monitor the change in the phase composition and texture. The linear coordinate detector provides simultaneous registration at diffraction angles 2θ = 43°. small-sized X-ray tubes of the "Fox" type with high luminosity and low power (5 W) ensure the radiological safety of the device, in which at a distance of 25 cm from the irradiated area, the radiation level is equal to the natural background level. Devices of the DRP series are used in determining stresses at various stages of metal forming, cutting, grinding, heat treatment, welding, surface hardening in order to optimize these technological operations. Control over the drop in the level of induced residual compressive stresses in especially critical products and structures during their operation makes it possible to take the product out of service before its destruction, preventing possible accidents and catastrophes.

3.2 Spectrum analysis

Along with the determination of the atomic crystal structure and phase composition of the material for its complete characteristics it is mandatory to determine its chemical composition.

Increasingly, various so-called instrumental methods of spectral analysis are used in practice for these purposes. Each of them has its own advantages and applications.

One of the important requirements in many cases is that the method used ensures the safety of the analyzed object; It is these methods of analysis that are discussed in this section. The next criterion according to which the methods of analysis described in this section were chosen is their locality.

The method of fluorescence X-ray spectral analysis is based on the penetration of rather hard X-ray radiation (from an X-ray tube) into the analyzed object, penetrating into a layer with a thickness of the order of several micrometers. The characteristic X-ray radiation arising in this case in the object makes it possible to obtain averaged data on its chemical composition.

To determine the elemental composition of a substance, one can use the analysis of the characteristic X-ray spectrum of a sample placed on the anode of an X-ray tube and subjected to electron bombardment - the emission method, or the analysis of the spectrum of secondary (fluorescent) X-ray radiation of a sample subjected to irradiation with hard X-rays from an X-ray tube or other source - fluorescent method.

The disadvantage of the emission method is, firstly, the need to place the sample on the anode of the X-ray tube, followed by evacuation with vacuum pumps; obviously, this method is unsuitable for fusible and volatile substances. The second drawback is related to the fact that even refractory objects are damaged by electron bombardment. The fluorescent method is free from these shortcomings and therefore has a much wider application. The advantage of the fluorescence method is also the absence of bremsstrahlung, which improves the sensitivity of the analysis. Comparison of the measured wavelengths with tables of spectral lines of chemical elements is the basis of a qualitative analysis, and the relative intensities of the spectral lines of different elements that form the sample substance form the basis of a quantitative analysis. From a consideration of the mechanism of excitation of characteristic X-ray radiation, it is clear that the radiations of one or another series (K or L, M, etc.) arise simultaneously, and the ratio of line intensities within the series is always constant. Therefore, the presence of this or that element is established not by individual lines, but by a series of lines as a whole (except for the weakest ones, taking into account the content of this element). For relatively light elements, the analysis of the K-series lines is used, for heavy elements, the L-series lines; under different conditions (depending on the equipment used and on the analyzed elements), different regions of the characteristic spectrum may be most convenient.

The main features of X-ray spectral analysis are as follows.

Simplicity of X-ray characteristic spectra even for heavy elements (compared to optical spectra), which simplifies the analysis (small number of lines; similarity in their mutual arrangement; with an increase in the serial number, a regular shift of the spectrum to the short-wavelength region occurs; comparative simplicity of quantitative analysis).

Independence of wavelengths from the state of atoms of the analyzed element (free or in a chemical compound). This is due to the fact that the occurrence of characteristic X-ray radiation is associated with the excitation of internal electronic levels, which in most cases practically do not change with the degree of ionization of atoms.

The possibility of separation in the analysis of rare earth and some other elements that have small differences in the spectra in the optical range due to similarity electronic structure outer shells and differ very little in their chemical properties.

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy is "non-destructive", so it has an advantage over conventional optical spectroscopy when analyzing thin samples - thin metal sheet, foil, etc.

X-ray fluorescence spectrometers, among them multichannel spectrometers or quantometers, providing express quantitative analysis of elements (from Na or Mg to U) with an error of less than 1% of the determined value, a sensitivity threshold of 10 -3 ... 10 -4% .

x-ray beam

Methods for determining the spectral composition of x-rays

Spectrometers are divided into two types: crystal-diffraction and crystalless.

The decomposition of X-rays into a spectrum using a natural diffraction grating - a crystal - is essentially similar to obtaining a spectrum of ordinary light rays using an artificial diffraction grating in the form of periodic strokes on glass. The condition for the formation of a diffraction maximum can be written as the condition of "reflection" from a system of parallel atomic planes separated by a distance d hkl .

When conducting a qualitative analysis, one can judge the presence of an element in a sample by one line - usually the most intense line of the spectral series suitable for a given analyzer crystal. The resolution of crystal diffraction spectrometers is sufficient to separate the characteristic lines even of elements adjacent in position in the periodic table. However, we must also take into account the imposition of different lines of different elements, as well as the imposition of reflections different order. This circumstance should be taken into account when choosing analytical lines. At the same time, it is necessary to use the possibilities of improving the resolution of the device.

Conclusion

Thus, x-rays are invisible electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 10 5 - 10 2 nm. X-rays can penetrate some materials that are opaque to visible light. They are emitted during the deceleration of fast electrons in matter (continuous spectrum) and during transitions of electrons from the outer electron shells of the atom to the inner ones (linear spectrum). Sources of X-ray radiation are: X-ray tube, some radioactive isotopes, accelerators and accumulators of electrons (synchrotron radiation). Receivers - film, luminescent screens, nuclear radiation detectors. X-rays are used in X-ray diffraction analysis, medicine, flaw detection, X-ray spectral analysis, etc.

Having considered the positive aspects of V. Roentgen's discovery, it is necessary to note its harmful biological effect. It turned out that X-rays can cause something like a severe sunburn (erythema), accompanied, however, by deeper and more permanent damage to the skin. Appearing ulcers often turn into cancer. In many cases, fingers or hands had to be amputated. There were also deaths.

It has been found that skin damage can be avoided by reducing exposure time and dose, using shielding (eg lead) and remote controls. But gradually other, more long-term effects of X-ray exposure were revealed, which were then confirmed and studied in experimental animals. Effects due to X-rays and other ionizing radiations (such as gamma rays emitted by radioactive materials) include:

) temporary changes in the composition of the blood after a relatively small excess exposure;

) irreversible changes in the composition of the blood (hemolytic anemia) after prolonged excessive exposure;

) an increase in the incidence of cancer (including leukemia);

) faster aging and early death;

) the occurrence of cataracts.

The biological impact of X-rays on the human body is determined by the level of radiation dose, as well as by which particular organ of the body was exposed to radiation.

The accumulation of knowledge about the effects of X-ray radiation on the human body has led to the development of national and international standards for permissible radiation doses, published in various reference books.

To avoid the harmful effects of X-rays, control methods are used:

) availability of adequate equipment,

) monitoring compliance with safety regulations,

) correct use of the equipment.

List of sources used

1) Blokhin M.A., Physics of X-rays, 2nd ed., M., 1957;

) Blokhin M.A., Methods of X-ray spectral studies, M., 1959;

) X-rays. Sat. ed. M.A. Blokhin, trans. with him. and English, M., 1960;

) Kharaja F., General course of X-ray engineering, 3rd ed., M. - L., 1966;

) Mirkin L.I., Handbook of X-ray diffraction analysis of polycrystals, M., 1961;

) Weinstein E.E., Kakhana M.M., Reference tables on X-ray spectroscopy, M., 1953.

) X-ray and electron-optical analysis. Gorelik S.S., Skakov Yu.A., Rastorguev L.N.: Proc. Allowance for universities. - 4th ed. Add. And a reworker. - M.: "MISiS", 2002. - 360 p.

Applications

Annex 1

General view of X-ray tubes


Annex 2

Scheme of X-ray tube for structural analysis

Scheme of an X-ray tube for structural analysis: 1 - metal anode glass (usually grounded); 2 - windows made of beryllium for x-ray output; 3 - thermionic cathode; 4 - glass bulb, isolating the anode part of the tube from the cathode; 5 - cathode terminals, to which the filament voltage is applied, as well as high (relative to the anode) voltage; 6 - electrostatic system for focusing electrons; 7 - anode (anticathode); 8 - branch pipes for input and output of running water cooling the anode glass.

Annex 3

Moseley diagram

Moseley diagram for K-, L- and M-series of characteristic X-rays. The abscissa shows the serial number of the element Z, the ordinate - ( With is the speed of light).

Appendix 4

Ionization chamber.

Fig.1. Section of a cylindrical ionization chamber: 1 - cylindrical body of the chamber, which serves as a negative electrode; 2 - cylindrical rod serving as a positive electrode; 3 - insulators.

Rice. 2. Scheme of switching on the current ionization chamber: V - voltage on the electrodes of the chamber; G is a galvanometer that measures the ionization current.

Rice. 3. Current-voltage characteristic of the ionization chamber.

Rice. 4. Scheme of switching on the pulsed ionization chamber: C - capacitance of the collecting electrode; R is resistance.

Annex 5

Scintillation counter.

Scheme of a scintillation counter: light quanta (photons) "knock out" electrons from the photocathode; moving from dynode to dynode, the electron avalanche multiplies.

Appendix 6

Geiger-Muller counter.

Rice. 1. Scheme of a glass Geiger-Muller counter: 1 - hermetically sealed glass tube; 2 - cathode (a thin layer of copper on a stainless steel tube); 3 - output of the cathode; 4 - anode (thin stretched thread).

Rice. 2. Scheme of switching on the Geiger-Muller counter.

Rice. 3. The counting characteristic of the Geiger-Muller counter.

Annex 7

proportional counter.

Scheme of a proportional counter: a - electron drift region; b - area of ​​gas amplification.

Annex 8

Semiconductor detectors

Semiconductor detectors; the sensitive area is highlighted by hatching; n - region of a semiconductor with electronic conductivity, p - with hole, i - with intrinsic conduction; a - silicon surface-barrier detector; b - drift germanium-lithium planar detector; c - germanium-lithium coaxial detector.